Layers 2w – 4w: The typography of Ŋarâþ Crîþ

In principle, layer 2w is the highest written layer needed to write in Ŋarâþ Crîþ. (Note that there is only one valid layer-2w representation for each layer-1 string; in other words, changing a valid layer-2w string in a way that preserves the layer-1 representation always results in an invalid layer-2w string.) However, speakers of Ŋarâþ Crîþ tend to value aesthetics, even in writing. Thus, a mastery of handwriting beyond layer 2w is considered crucial.

Even though movable type has been available for a long time, prominent parts of printed materials (such as titles) often continued to use plates engraved from handwriting. Eventually, typography and calligraphy were considered parts of the same discipline, leading to typefaces supporting more features from the latter. Even today, logos often opt for lettering over typefaces. Because of this unification, we use the term typography to refer to the discipline of laying out writing in general.

Although a full treatment of Ŋarâþ Crîþ typography is out of scope for this grammar, this section gives an overview of the concerns at hand.

Kerning

Cenvos is a script that absolutely requires kerning. To start, some glyphs such as ²⟨e⟩ and ²⟨m⟩ have long leftward tails that necessitate kerning with glyphs such as ²⟨s⟩ or ²⟨o⟩, which lack descenders, or even some glyphs with descenders such as ²⟨j⟩.

Other glyphs such as ²⟨j⟩ and ²⟨ê⟩ have shorter leftward descenders that also require kerning with following glyphs.

²⟨â⟩ has a descender in the opposite direction; thus, it must kern with certain preceding glyphs.

Diagonal strokes with matching slopes (such as in ²⟨âv⟩ or ²⟨rj⟩) should be kerned to bring them closer.

Moreover, even pairs are sometimes insufficient. Since ²⟨e⟩ and ²⟨i⟩ are kerned so closely, ²⟨ei⟩ must itself kern with glyphs such as ²⟨s⟩.

Ligation and shaping

Another important aspect of typography is the use of ligatures (beyond the required ones). The concepts of higher written layers and the hierarchy of graphic variations have been developed to try to formalize this problem.

To explain the idea behind this model, we note that a good ligature will have the end of one glyph near the start of the next. The starting and ending points of a glyph, in turn, depend on the order in which the strokes are written.

Furthermore, natural handwriting tends to join certain strokes together. In some cases, this joining can affect how a glyph ligates; for instance, ³⟨a_1α ⟩ cannot ligate with the previous character (ligating through the middle would cause a stroke collision with stroke 2 of ³⟨a_1α ⟩), but ³⟨a_1β ⟩, in which the two strokes are joined without a loop, can do so.

In addition, rapid handwriting often produces stylistic variations of glyphs. For example, ³⟨i_2α ⟩ (“²⟨i⟩ with the stroke going upward”) can often end in a leftward swash at the end of the stroke. Since this deviation does not create any ambiguity, it has been accepted, yielding the stylistic variant ⁴⟨i_2α^S⟩.

We now cover the formalism itself. Layers 2w*, 3w, and 4w are aesthetic layers; the writer decides the precise sequence of glyphs to realize a layer-2w string in higher layers. Nonetheless, not all layer-3w or -4w strings are valid, even those that correspond to valid layer-2w strings; for instance, ³⟨s₁i₁⟩ is not a valid realization of ²⟨si⟩ because it requires a base-to-top ligation.

Only some glyphs participate in typesetting. Notably, all letters participate, but no numerals do so, nor does the space.

Each participating layer-2w* glyph has a hierarchy of variations as follows:

• At the top level is the layer-2w* glyph itself.
• These are divided into stroke-order variants, which differ only in stroke order. All strokes must be preserved, and no loops may be introduced or removed, but the relative stroke order might be different, and some strokes may be written in the reverse direction; furthermore, a stroke may be split at a turn, and two strokes may be joined where one ends and another begins. These are denoted with subscript numerals: ²⟨a⟩ has variants ³⟨a₁⟩, ³⟨a₂⟩, and ³⟨a₃⟩. Variant 1 is considered the ‘canonical’ variant.
• Each stroke-order variant has one or more topological variants, which may join strokes together, cause two different strokes to touch each other when they did not (or vice versa), or introduce or remove loops. Lengthening or shortening strokes to alter ligation properties also falls under this level. Topological variants are distinguished using lowercase Greek letters. For instance, ³⟨a₁⟩ has three topological variants: ³⟨a_1α ⟩, ³⟨a_1β ⟩, ³⟨a_1γ ⟩. α is reserved for the canonical variant, which preserves all strokes, although it is not always the most common variant.
• Each topological variant has one or more stylistic variants, which can modify the strokes of the glyph themselves. For instance, ⁴⟨i_2α ⟩ is the topological variant of ²⟨i⟩ in which the stroke goes from the base to the top. It has two stylistic variants: ⁴⟨i_2α ⟩ is the default one, and ⁴⟨i_2α^S⟩ has a swash to the left at the top of the stroke. Note that the ‘canonical’ stylistic variant has no superscript letter, while the other variants do.

Layer 2w is transliterated using mostly the same symbols as the layer-1 romanization, but required ligatures are notated with an overline (such as in ²⟨me⟩ for 𐲌𐲁), and final forms are written as if they were ligatures with a special $ symbol: ²⟨c$⟩ for 𐲀. Layer 2w* introduces discretionary ligatures, which are similarly marked in our notation. By discretionary ligature, we mean a ligature that the writer may choose to use but is not obligated to do so, and that cannot be derived by simply connecting the ending stroke of one glyph to the starting stroke of another.

Layer 3w works on topological variants. The overline denotes optional ligatures between topological variants; it is now omitted for required and discretionary ligatures, which are their own layer-2w* glyphs in their own right: ³⟨+_1α me_1α  r_1α l_2β a_1α n_1α  #_1α f_1α l_2δ i_1β r_1α o_1α r_2α a_3β ⟩ transliterates a particularly fancy realization of ⟨+merlan #flirora⟩.

Layer 4w works on stylistic variants. In the transliteration, the overline is used as in 3w.

Layer 3w can be thought of as the ‘ligation layer’; similarly, layer 4w can be thought of as the ‘shaping layer’.

Table 1 describes the canonical stroke order of each glyph, and Table 2 lists the stroke-order variants.

Table 3 lists all topological variants with their possible join positions on each side, with B for base, M for mid (or mean), T for top (ascender line), and D for descender. If more than one position is listed, then any one of them can be used. A v suffix on a position indicates that the stroke end at the appropriate side is vertical.

In general, for two topological variants a and b to ligate to each other (in that order), there must exist a position C such that a can join at C endward and b can join at C startward, with at least one end not being vertical.

There are a few exceptions to this rule: any topological variant of ²⟨l⟩ can be ligated before ³⟨i_2α ⟩ (see Figure 4 for an example).

Stylistic variants are much less standardized in comparison, but there are some widely recognized variants:

• Some topological variants (³⟨þ_1β ⟩, ³⟨j_1α ⟩, ³⟨i_2α ⟩, ³⟨c$_1α ⟩, ³⟨«_1α ⟩) have an S variant that introduces a swash at the end of the last stroke.
• In the standard forms, ²⟨e⟩ and ²⟨m⟩ (as well as the required ligatures involving these) have the tail sloping slightly upwards (as it goes to the left). This tail might sometimes bend downwards (the C variant) or even start with a downward slope (the D variant).
• The rightward descending stem of a glyph such as ³⟨r_1α ⟩ can be shortened (in the H variant) after an ²⟨e⟩ or ²⟨m⟩ to allow kerning.

²⟨’⟩ and ²⟨·⟩ are special: they can ligate with any participating glyph on either end, appearing as an extension of the stroke near the ²⟨’⟩ or ²⟨·⟩. Nonetheless, such ligation is not particularly common.

The rules over layers 3w and 4w dictate only what is legal, not what is considered beautiful. (Indeed, it is perfectly legal to use the 1α form of every glyph and abstain from all non-required ligatures.) Nor do they dictate how an eligible pair of glyphs should be ligated. There are some guidelines, however, on what is desirable:

• Avoid stroke collisions
• Minimize horizontal space
• Minimize effort to write
• Prefer to ligate when possible, but avoid doing so excessively
• Prefer to use the canonical stroke-order
• Prefer to use the most common topological forms
• Vary the particular forms of each letter

Connotations associated with choices in layer-4w realization

Of course, context also plays a role in deciding how to realize text into layer 4w. First, the purpose of the writing has an influence (text meant for children or language learners will be less embellished, and header text tends to be more embellished than body text).

Another part of context is the expressive connotation that the writer wishes to communicate.

Vertical ligation

Another desirable practice is vertical ligation, in which the strokes of two glyphs in different lines are connected. This is naturally difficult even in handwriting, let alone in type!